Starch Reality: la terapia genica offre ai pazienti affetti da GSD1a una rete di sicurezza metabolica / Starch Reality: Gene Therapy Gives GSD1a Patients a Metabolic Safety Net
Starch Reality: la terapia genica offre ai pazienti affetti da GSD1a una rete di sicurezza metabolica / Starch Reality: Gene Therapy Gives GSD1a Patients a Metabolic Safety Net
Segnalato dal Dott. Giuseppe Cotellessa / Reported by Dr. Giuseppe Cotellessa
Genglycos, la terapia genica di Ultragenyx approvata dalla FDA per la glicogenosi di tipo Ia (GSD1a), potrebbe prevenire l'ipoglicemia fatale nei pazienti con specifici genotipi.
Per 14 anni, Meredith "Meri" Gussin non ha mai dormito veramente. Di notte, nella loro casa di Miami, suo marito resta sveglio il tempo necessario per dare al figlio Jamie la sua dose notturna di amido di mais. Meri si occupa del turno successivo, svegliandosi alle 4 del mattino per somministrargli un'altra dose tramite sondino nasogastrico, seguita da un'altra ancora la mattina seguente. L'amido di mais non è solo nutriente. Per Jamie, affetto da una malattia metabolica nota come malattia da accumulo di glicogeno di tipo Ia (GSD1a), impedisce che la glicemia crolli durante il sonno, una situazione potenzialmente fatale.
Ipotesi imprevisti si affollano nella mente di Meri in un'infinita partita ad "acchiappa la talpa" delle preoccupazioni: e se il telefono non si caricasse? E se lo silenziasse per sbaglio? E se, dopo anni di sonno interrotto, non si svegliasse più? Per essere sicura di non perdere mai una poppata, Meri ha predisposto diversi sistemi di sicurezza: una sveglia accanto al letto ed un'altra dall'altra parte della stanza. Le sveglie sono scaglionate di qualche minuto l'una rispetto all'altra, nel caso in cui ne silenziasse una e si riaddormentasse.
La conseguenza è stata un'incessante spirale di ansia e spossatezza. "Non dormiamo una notte intera da 14 anni", ha dichiarato Meri a Inside Precision Medicine . "C'è la costante paura che possano verificarsi piccoli errori umani, con conseguenze potenzialmente fatali. Non si può vivere così."
Ma i nervi di Meri non si placano durante le ore di veglia di Jamie. Anche con un monitoraggio continuo del glucosio (CGM), la glicemia di Jamie può essere imprevedibile. Meri controlla il suo CGM Dexcom mentre è a scuola, si preoccupa se ha mangiato abbastanza a pranzo per arrivare alla dose successiva di amido di mais e si assicura che esca di casa con la sua bustina di amido di mais "crudo".
Questa paura riflette la peculiare crudeltà della GSD1a: solo con una gestione meticolosa fino all'eccesso le persone affette da questa rara malattia metabolica ereditaria possono apparire perfettamente sane. Ma il loro organismo non possiede la normale capacità di mantenere la glicemia a livelli normali durante il digiuno, il che rende pericoloso per la vita rimanere senza mangiare per ore, un'eventualità che non preoccupa costantemente la maggior parte delle persone. Come ha affermato Meri, "Il problema è che non c'è margine di errore".
Per decenni, quindi, il trattamento si è basato su un programma alimentare inflessibile e sull'assunzione di amido di mais crudo. Ora, per la prima volta, esiste una terapia approvata, progettata per modificare la biologia alla base del problema.
La prima terapia genica GSD1a
Il 19 agosto, la FDA ha concesso l'approvazione accelerata a Genglycos (pariglasgene brecaparvovec-opnr, precedentemente noto come DTX401 prima dell'acquisizione da parte di Dimension Therapeutics nel 2017) di Ultragenyx per adulti e bambini dagli otto anni in su affetti da glicogenosi di tipo 1a. Si tratta del primo trattamento approvato specificamente progettato per agire sulla causa sottostante della malattia.
La GSD1a è causata da varianti patogene nel gene G6PC , che codifica per la glucosio-6-fosfatasi (G6Pasi), un enzima fondamentale per la fase finale che permette al fegato di rilasciare glucosio nel flusso sanguigno. I pazienti con un'attività insufficiente della G6Pasi non riescono a mobilitare il glucosio durante il digiuno, causando grave ipoglicemia, accumulo di glicogeno nel fegato ed altre anomalie metaboliche.
Genglycos utilizza un vettore virale adeno-associato di sierotipo 8 (AAV8) per veicolare una copia funzionale di G6PC alle cellule epatiche con una singola infusione. Il dottor Eric Crombez, direttore medico di Ultragenyx, che ha iniziato a lavorare al programma quando apparteneva a Dimension Therapeutics, ha spiegato che l'AAV8 è stato scelto in parte per la sua capacità di raggiungere il fegato. (Il programma, avviato nel 2015, è precedente all'approvazione da parte della FDA di un farmaco che utilizza nanoparticelle lipidiche per veicolare farmaci genetici – il primo è stato il patisiran (Onpartto) di Alnylam nel 2018 – che ora è noto avere formulazioni che si dirigono preferenzialmente al fegato).
Secondo il dottor David Weinstein, che lavora alla terapia genica GSD1a dal 1998 e ha ricoperto il ruolo di responsabile globale per lo studio di fase I/II, il gene G6PC si adatta perfettamente alla limitata capacità di carico dei vettori AAV. Fornire alle cellule epatiche le istruzioni genetiche necessarie per svolgere una funzione metabolica mancante sembra semplice, ma solleva una questione insolita: come si misura il successo quando il trattamento esistente deriva da una semplice bustina di amido di mais?
Nello studio di fase III GlucoGene, i pazienti trattati con Genglycos hanno ridotto l'assunzione giornaliera di amido di mais in media del 41% alla settimana 48, rispetto ad una riduzione del 10% nel gruppo placebo, mantenendo al contempo il controllo glicemico. Alla settimana 96, i pazienti trattati avevano ridotto l'assunzione giornaliera di amido di mais in media del 61% rispetto al basale.
I risultati notturni sono stati particolarmente sorprendenti. Alla settimana 96, l'uso notturno di amido di mais si era ridotto del 70% tra i partecipanti inizialmente assegnati alla terapia e del 75% tra coloro che erano passati dal placebo. Due terzi hanno eliminato almeno una dose notturna di amido di mais mantenendo bassi livelli di ipoglicemia e migliorando la tolleranza al digiuno. Tre pazienti giapponesi di età compresa tra gli otto e i 17 anni hanno interrotto l'assunzione giornaliera di amido di mais mantenendo o migliorando il controllo glicemico in un piccolo studio in aperto.
RIQUADRO 1. Come l'amido di mais è diventato un trattamento salvavita per la GSD1a
Per una malattia causata dalla mancanza di un enzima epatico, uno dei progressi terapeutici più importanti non è arrivato da un laboratorio farmaceutico, bensì dalla cucina. Prima della moderna gestione dietetica, la glicogenosi di tipo Ia (GSD1a) era spesso fatale nell'infanzia. Poiché i pazienti non sono in grado di rilasciare adeguatamente il glucosio dal glicogeno immagazzinato, il digiuno può scatenare rapidamente una grave ipoglicemia.
Negli anni '70, la gestione della glicogenosi di tipo 1a richiedeva infusioni continue di glucosio tramite sondino nasogastrico durante la notte o frequenti alimentazioni continue, 24 ore su 24, per prevenire gravi episodi di ipoglicemia potenzialmente letali. I ricercatori iniziarono quindi a cercare un carboidrato in grado di fornire glucosio gradualmente, senza la necessità di un'alimentazione continua. L'amido di mais crudo si dimostrò straordinariamente efficace. Le sue complesse molecole di amido vengono digerite lentamente, garantendo un apporto prolungato di glucosio anziché il rapido picco prodotto dagli zuccheri semplici.
Nel 1984, YT Chen, Martin Cornblath e John Sidbury pubblicarono sul New England Journal of Medicine uno studio sulla terapia con amido di mais crudo per la glicogenosi di tipo 1a , contribuendo a definire un approccio che sarebbe diventato il cardine del trattamento per i successivi quattro decenni. L'aspetto "crudo" è fondamentale. La cottura gelatinizza l'amido, facilitandone la scomposizione da parte degli enzimi digestivi e riducendone l'effetto di rilascio del glucosio. L'amido di mais crudo viene assorbito più lentamente, consentendo ai pazienti trattati con dosi appropriate di mantenere la glicemia stabile per diverse ore.
L'amido di mais ha cambiato radicalmente il decorso naturale della glicogenosi di tipo 1a, aiutando i bambini che un tempo rischiavano la vita a sopravvivere fino all'età adulta a causa di una grave intolleranza al digiuno. Tuttavia, questa scoperta presenta un limite importante: l'amido di mais non ripara il percorso metabolico difettoso, ma lo sostituisce. Pertanto, i pazienti potrebbero aver bisogno di dosi somministrate con estrema precisione nell'arco delle ore, anche durante la notte.
Amido di mais come punto finale
Sia Crombez che Weinstein sottolineano che concentrarsi solo sui grammi di amido di mais non coglie il vero significato di quei numeri. Prima che l'amido di mais diventasse la terapia standard, ha affermato Crombez, la GSD1a era considerata universalmente fatale. I bassi livelli di glucosio impediscono ai pazienti di utilizzare il glicogeno epatico, quindi devono assumere amido di mais ogni poche ore.
Quando un paziente sottoposto a terapia genica riduce la fonte esterna di glucosio, pur mantenendo stabili i livelli di glucosio nel sangue, sta accadendo qualcosa di biologicamente molto più significativo. "È importante parlare con frasi complete", ha detto Crombez a Inside Precision Medicine . "Si tratta della riduzione dell'amido di mais e della capacità di mantenere normali i livelli di glucosio". Se i pazienti riescono a digiunare più a lungo senza amido di mais ed a mantenere stabili i livelli di glucosio, il loro fegato sta svolgendo una funzione metabolica che prima non era in grado di svolgere. "Si tratta davvero di essere in grado di mantenere autonomamente i livelli di glucosio per la prima volta nella vita", ha affermato Crombez.
Weinstein va oltre. "La riduzione dell'amido di mais non è, a mio avviso, l'obiettivo clinicamente più significativo", ha dichiarato Weinstein a Inside Precision Medicine . "L'aspetto più importante è evitare l'ipoglicemia e l'ipoglicemia grave". Tra i pazienti che ha seguito, Weinstein ha affermato che anche quelli con mutazioni gravi hanno evitato l'ipoglicemia grave durante i test dello studio, con alcuni che hanno digiunato fino a 15 ore, qualcosa che ha descritto come "inaudito nella GSD". Questo si avvicina molto di più a ciò che le famiglie temono realmente.
Meri sa cosa c'è in gioco. Durante un incontro incentrato sui pazienti, organizzato dalla FDA e che Meri ha contribuito a coordinare, due madri hanno raccontato di aver perso i propri figli dopo non aver sentito le sveglie notturne. Una coppia, in seguito, ha divorziato a causa di reciproche accuse per la morte del bambino, ha affermato Meri.
Weinstein ha assistito alla stessa tragedia in ambito clinico. "Le persone affette da GSD1a, soprattutto quelle con le mutazioni più gravi, vanno a letto la sera preoccupate di non essere ancora vive o che il loro bambino non sia ancora vivo al mattino", ha affermato Weinstein. "C'è la paura di andare a dormire perché, purtroppo, ho avuto pazienti che sono morti perché non avevano assunto l'amido di mais la sera prima".
Secondo lui, questo è il vero obiettivo terapeutico. "Con la terapia genica, credo che riusciremo a prevenire questa paura", ha affermato Weinstein. "Per me, questo è il vantaggio maggiore di questa terapia genica. Non si tratta della riduzione dell'amido di mais". Crombez fa una distinzione simile. "Non si tratta di amido di mais", ha detto Crombez. "Si tratta di permettere a questi pazienti di dormire tutta la notte e vivere la propria vita".
Durata sconosciuta
Nonostante l'entusiasmo iniziale, Genglycos non corregge completamente la GSD1a. "Penso che non sia perfetto. Non è una cura, ma ha il potenziale per essere un trattamento in grado di cambiare la vita a molti pazienti", ha affermato Weinstein.
Una variabile importante potrebbe essere il genotipo. Weinstein ha affermato che i pazienti che iniziano il trattamento con una certa attività enzimatica residua sembrano rispondere particolarmente bene, mentre quelli con mutazioni che comportano l'assenza di attività enzimatica possono comunque migliorare in modo sostanziale, ma potrebbero non raggiungere gli stessi risultati.
Anche la durata a lungo termine rimane un interrogativo aperto. Crombez ha affermato che i partecipanti alla Fase I/II sono stati seguiti per oltre cinque anni e che i benefici si sono finora mantenuti. Tuttavia, per quanto tempo un singolo trattamento possa rimanere efficace sarà necessario un monitoraggio continuo. "Abbiamo sempre desiderato almeno cinque anni di trattamento duraturo", ha dichiarato Crombez. "Penso che se riuscissimo ad arrivare a 10 o 15 anni, sarebbe fantastico. Qualsiasi risultato superiore sarebbe ottimo."
La questione assume particolare importanza nei bambini piccoli. In genere, i vettori AAV non integrano il loro carico terapeutico nel genoma. Con la crescita del fegato e la divisione degli epatociti, la percentuale di cellule che trasportano il DNA terapeutico potrebbe diminuire. Questo spiega perché la terapia è attualmente approvata a partire dagli otto anni di età, nonostante il rischio di ipoglicemia possa essere particolarmente elevato durante la prima infanzia.
"Se somministriamo il farmaco a pazienti molto giovani, dobbiamo tenere presente che avranno bisogno di una seconda dose, considerando la sola crescita epatica", ha affermato Crombez, aggiungendo che anche diversi anni di protezione potrebbero rivelarsi utili nei bambini particolarmente vulnerabili. Questa possibilità, tuttavia, deve ancora essere verificata.
Non è ancora chiaro se il ripristino di una certa regolazione del glucosio possa prevenire le complicanze a lungo termine della GSD1a, tra cui adenomi epatici, malattie renali e problemi neurologici. "Non abbiamo ancora sufficiente esperienza per sapere se la terapia genica aumenterà o diminuirà il rischio di complicanze", ha affermato Weinstein.
Ricevere la terapia non significa uscire da un centro di infusione e dimenticarsi della GSD1a. Weinstein ritiene che la gestione post-trattamento, compreso il modo in cui i medici riducono l'assunzione di amido di mais e modificano la dieta dei pazienti, possa influenzare sostanzialmente i risultati. Secondo Weinstein, con l'esperienza accumulata dai ricercatori, i risultati sono migliorati. "Non si tratterà semplicemente di somministrare la terapia genica e andarsene, come credo che per qualche ragione la gente pensi che sia così che funziona la terapia genica", ha affermato Weinstein.
Un progresso, ma non una cura
Genglycos rappresenta probabilmente l'inizio, piuttosto che il punto di arrivo, del trattamento genetico per la GSD1a. Beam Therapeutics sta perseguendo una strategia diversa: la modifica genetica progettata per correggere la mutazione R83C, che è il genotipo di Jamie Gussin. A differenza dell'aggiunta genica tramite AAV, una modifica genetica riuscita potrebbe teoricamente creare una correzione genetica permanente che persiste con la divisione delle cellule epatiche. "La modifica genetica è entusiasmante perché offre la possibilità di una cura", ha affermato Weinstein.
Ma la sua precisione è anche il suo limite. L'approccio si concentra su una specifica mutazione, il che significa che non può affrontare l'ampio spettro di varianti del gene G6PC responsabili della GSD1a. Anche se la modifica genetica dovesse avere successo, sostiene Weinstein, l'aggiunta di geni indipendente dalla mutazione potrebbe quindi continuare ad essere utile ad una popolazione di pazienti molto più ampia.
Per ora, persino Ultragenyx è cauta nel descrivere i risultati ottenuti con il suo approccio di prima generazione. "Sappiamo che per tutti i pazienti non stiamo curando completamente questa malattia", ha affermato Crombez. "Sono fermamente convinto che se si parte con l'obiettivo della perfezione, non si arriverà da nessuna parte. Questo è davvero un ottimo punto di partenza."
Jamie, tuttavia, non è risultato idoneo per le sperimentazioni cliniche di Ultragenyx o Beam Therapeutics. Il quattordicenne Jamie ha ben poca esperienza dell'indipendenza che molti adolescenti danno per scontata. Raramente trascorre la notte lontano dai genitori. Non ha mai partecipato ad un campo estivo e solo di recente ha avuto la sua prima esperienza con un classico dell'infanzia: il pigiama party.
Per famiglie come quella dei Gussin, il successo non richiede necessariamente la perfezione. Meri può tranquillamente mandare le sue due figlie al college senza preoccuparsi della loro sicurezza. Con Jamie, invece, non ha mai potuto dare per scontata questa premessa fondamentale. "Spero che possa andare al college, vivere in modo indipendente e godersi la vita senza paura", ha detto. "Per tutte le persone affette da GSD, il dono più grande sarebbe poter dormire sonni tranquilli senza questa preoccupazione".
Con le sofisticate ricerche biomediche di oggi, l'ambizione di poter andare a letto, chiudere gli occhi e dare per scontato che arriverà il mattino è quasi assurda. "Sembra una cosa così banale", ha detto Meri. "Vuoi fare un pisolino sul divano, ti addormenti e non hai bisogno di impostare la sveglia. Ma non puoi permetterti di saltare una poppata!"
Dopo una vita scandita dalla necessità di assumere la prossima dose di amido di mais, la terapia genica potrebbe finalmente dare ad alcuni pazienti il permesso di saltarne una e di dormire sonni tranquilli.
ENGLISH
Ultragenyx's FDA-approved gene therapy for glycogen storage disease type Ia (GSD1a), Genglycos, may prevent deadly hypoglycemia for patients with specific genotypes
For 14 years, Meredith “Meri” Gussin has never really slept. At night in their Miami home, her husband stays awake long enough to give their son Jamie his midnight dose of cornstarch. Meri takes the next shift, waking at 4 a.m. to deliver another dose through his feeding tube, followed by another in the morning. The cornstarch isn’t simply nutrition (Box 1). For Jamie, who has a metabolic disorder known as glycogen storage disease type Ia (GSD1a), it keeps his blood sugar from crashing while he sleeps—a potentially fatal situation.
Hypothetical mishaps pop into Meri’s mind in an endless game of whack-a-mole for worries: What if her phone doesn’t charge? What if she accidentally mutes it? What if, after years of interrupted sleep, she simply doesn’t wake up? To ensure she never misses a feed, Meri has several fail safes: one alarm beside the bed and another across the room. The alarms are staggered a few minutes apart in case she silences one and drifts back to sleep.
The consequence has been a never-ending spell of anxiety and exhaustion. “We’ve never slept through the night for 14 years,” Meri told Inside Precision Medicine. “There’s this constant fear that some minor human errors can occur, and it could have consequences that could be fatal. That’s no way to live.”
But Meri’s nerves don’t get to sleep during Jamie’s waking life. Even with a continuous glucose monitor (CGM), Jamie’s blood sugar can behave unpredictably. Meri checks his Dexcom CGM while he’s at school, worries about whether he ate enough lunch to make it to his next cornstarch dose, and makes sure he leaves home carrying his pouch of “uncooked” cornstarch.
That fear reflects the peculiar cruelty of GSD1a: only with management that’s meticulous to a fault can people with this rare inherited metabolic disease appear perfectly healthy. But their bodies lack the normal ability to maintain blood glucose during fasting, making going without eating for hours—something that doesn’t constantly nag the consciousness of most—life-threatening. As Meri put it, “The issue is that there is no margin for error.”
For decades, treatment has therefore revolved around an unforgiving schedule of meals and raw, uncooked cornstarch. Now, for the first time, there is an approved therapy designed to change the underlying biology.
The first GSD1a gene therapy
On August 19, the FDA granted accelerated approval to Ultragenyx’s Genglycos (pariglasgene brecaparvovec-opnr, formerly DTX401 prior to being acquired from Dimension Therapeutics in 2017) for adults and children ages eight and older with GSD1a. It is the first approved treatment designed to address the underlying cause of the disease.
GSD1a is caused by pathogenic variants in G6PC, which encodes glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase), an enzyme critical to the final step that allows the liver to release glucose into the bloodstream. Patients with insufficient G6Pase activity cannot mobilize glucose during fasting, causing severe hypoglycemia, liver glycogen accumulation, and other metabolic abnormalities.
Genglycos uses an adeno-associated virus serotype 8 (AAV8) vector to deliver a functional copy of G6PC to liver cells with a single infusion. Eric Crombez, MD, chief medical officer of Ultragenyx, who began working on the program when it belonged to Dimension Therapeutics, explained that AAV8 was selected in part for its ability to traffic to the liver. (The program, which launched in 2015, predated the FDA approval of a drug using lipid nanoparticles to deliver genetic medicines—the first being Alnylam’s patisiran (Onpartto) in 2018—which are now known to have formulations that preferentially target the liver).
The G6PC gene also happens to fit comfortably within the limited cargo capacity of AAV, according to David Weinstein, MD, who has worked on GSD1a gene therapy since 1998 and served as global lead for the Phase I/II study. It seems simple to provide liver cells the genetic instructions they need to perform a missing metabolic function, but it raises a more unusual question: How do you measure success when the existing treatment comes from a packet of cornstarch?
In the Phase III GlucoGene study, patients treated with Genglycos reduced their daily cornstarch intake by an average of 41% at Week 48, compared with a 10% reduction in the placebo group, while maintaining glycemic control. By Week 96, treated patients had reduced their daily cornstarch intake by an average of 61% from baseline.
The nighttime results were particularly striking. By Week 96, nighttime cornstarch use had fallen 70% among participants originally assigned to the therapy and 75% among those who crossed over from placebo. Two-thirds eliminated at least one overnight cornstarch dose while maintaining low levels of hypoglycemia and improving fasting tolerance. Three eight- to 17-year-old Japanese patients discontinued daily cornstarch while maintaining or improving glycemic control in a small open-label study.
BOX 1. How cornstarch became a lifesaving treatment for GSD1a
For a disease caused by a missing liver enzyme, one of the most important therapeutic advances came not from a pharmaceutical laboratory, but from the kitchen. Before modern dietary management, glycogen storage disease type Ia (GSD1a) was often fatal in childhood. Because patients cannot adequately release glucose from stored glycogen, fasting can rapidly trigger severe hypoglycemia.
By the 1970s, managing GSD1a required continuous overnight nasogastric glucose infusions or highly disruptive, frequent round-the-clock feedings to prevent severe, life-threatening hypoglycemia. Researchers then began searching for a carbohydrate that could provide glucose gradually without continuous feeding. Uncooked cornstarch proved remarkably effective. Its complex starch molecules are digested slowly, providing a prolonged supply of glucose rather than the rapid spike produced by simple sugars.
In 1984, Y.T. Chen, Martin Cornblath, and John Sidbury reported uncooked cornstarch therapy for GSD1a in The New England Journal of Medicine, helping establish an approach that would become the backbone of treatment for the next four decades. The “uncooked” aspect is critical. Cooking gelatinizes starch, making it easier for digestive enzymes to break down and shortening its glucose-releasing effect. Raw cornstarch is absorbed more slowly, allowing appropriately dosed patients to maintain blood glucose for several hours.
Cornstarch dramatically changed the natural history of GSD1a, helping children who once faced life-threatening fasting intolerance survive into adulthood. But the breakthrough came with an important limitation: cornstarch does not repair the defective metabolic pathway. It substitutes for it. Patients may therefore require scrupulously timed doses around the clock, even throughout the night.
Cornstarch as an endpoint
Both Crombez and Weinstein stress that focusing only on grams of cornstarch misses what those numbers actually represent. Before cornstarch became standard management (Box 1), Crombez said, GSD1a was considered universally fatal. Depleted glucose levels prevent patients from accessing liver glycogen, so they must eat cornstarch every few hours.
When a gene-therapy recipient reduces that external glucose source yet continues maintaining blood glucose, something much more biologically significant is happening. “It’s important to talk in full sentences,” Crombez told Inside Precision Medicine. “It’s the reduction of cornstarch and the ability to maintain normal glucose levels.” If patients can fast longer without cornstarch and maintain glucose, their livers are performing a metabolic function that they previously could not. “It’s really about being able to maintain normal glucose levels by yourself for the first time in your life,” Crombez said.
Weinstein goes further. “Cornstarch reduction is not, to me, the most clinically meaningful endpoint,” Weinstein told Inside Precision Medicine. “The most important part of this is avoidance of hypoglycemia and avoidance of severe hypoglycemia.” Among patients he has followed, Weinstein said even those with severe mutations avoided severe hypoglycemia during study testing, with some fasting for as long as 15 hours—something he described as “unheard of in GSD.” That gets much closer to what families actually fear.
Meri knows what is at stake. At a patient-focused meeting hosted by the FDA that Meri helped to lead, two mothers described losing their children after missing nighttime alarms. One couple later divorced amid mutual blame over the death, Meri said.
Weinstein has seen the same tragedy clinically. “People with GSD1a, especially the people with the severe mutations, go to bed at night and worry about whether they’re going to be alive or whether their child is going to be alive in the morning,” Weinstein said. “There is a fear of going to bed because I have had patients, unfortunately, who died because they missed the overnight cornstarch.”
That, he argues, is the real therapeutic target. “With the gene therapy, I think we will prevent that fear,” Weinstein said. “To me, that is the biggest benefit of this gene therapy. It’s not the cornstarch reduction.” Crombez makes a similar distinction. “This isn’t about cornstarch,” Crombez said. “This is about these patients being able to sleep through the night and live their lives.”
Durability unknown
For all the early enthusiasm, Genglycos does not completely correct GSD1a. “I think it’s not perfect. It’s not a cure, but it should have the potential to be a life-changing treatment for many of the patients,” Weinstein said.
One important variable may be genotype. Weinstein said patients entering treatment with some residual enzyme activity appear to respond particularly well, while those with mutations resulting in no enzyme activity can still improve substantially but may not achieve the same results.
Long-term durability also remains an open question. Crombez said Phase I/II participants have now been followed beyond five years, and the benefit has so far held up. But exactly how long a single treatment can remain effective will require continued observation. “We’ve always wanted at least five years of durable treatment,” Crombez said. “I think if we can get to 10 or 15, that’s fantastic. Anything beyond that, great.”
The issue becomes particularly important in young children. AAV generally does not integrate its therapeutic payload into the genome. As a child’s liver grows and hepatocytes divide, the proportion of cells carrying the therapeutic DNA could decline. That helps explain why the therapy is currently approved starting at age eight—even though the risk from hypoglycemia can be particularly intense during early childhood.
“If we dose really young patients, we do need to be mindful that they are going to need a dose two based on liver growth alone,” Crombez said, adding that even several years of protection could ultimately prove worthwhile in particularly vulnerable children. That possibility, however, still needs to be tested.
Nor is it clear whether restoring some glucose regulation will prevent the long-term complications of GSD1a, including hepatic adenomas, kidney disease, and neurological problems. “We don’t have enough experience yet to know if gene therapy is going to increase or decrease the risk of complications,” Weinstein said.
Receiving the therapy does not mean walking out of an infusion center and forgetting about GSD1a. Weinstein believes post-treatment management—including how clinicians reduce cornstarch and adjust patients’ diets—can substantially influence outcomes. According to Weinstein, as investigators accumulated experience, results improved. “It’s not going to be just give the gene therapy and walk away, which I think for some reason people think that’s how gene therapy works,” Weinstein said.
An advance, but no cure
Genglycos likely represents the beginning, rather than the endpoint, of genetic treatment for GSD1a. Beam Therapeutics is pursuing a different strategy: gene editing designed to correct the R83C mutation, which is the genotype of Jamie Gussin. Unlike AAV gene addition, a successful edit could theoretically create a permanent genetic correction that persists as liver cells divide. “Gene editing is exciting because it offers the chance of a cure,” Weinstein said.
But its precision is also its limitation. The approach targets one particular mutation, meaning it cannot address the broad spectrum of G6PC variants responsible for GSD1a. Even if gene editing succeeds, Weinstein argues, mutation-agnostic gene addition could therefore continue serving a much broader patient population.
For now, even Ultragenyx is careful about describing what its first-generation approach has accomplished. “We understand that for all patients we are not completely, fully treating this disease,” Crombez said. “I’m a firm believer that if you start with perfect as a requirement, you’re going to get nowhere. This is a really good place to start.”
Jamie, however, didn’t qualify for the Ultragenyx or Beam Therapeutics trials. Fourteen-year-old Jamie has hardly experienced the independence many teenagers take for granted. He rarely spends nights away from his parents. He’s never attended a sleepaway camp, and only recently did he recently have his first experience with the childhood staple of sleepovers.
For families like the Gussins, success does not necessarily require perfection. Meri can comfortably send her two daughters off to college without worrying about their safety. With Jamie, she has never been able to take that basic assumption for granted. “I hope that he gets to go to college and live independently and enjoy life without fear,” she said. “For all people with GSD, the biggest gift would be able to have a full night’s sleep without that worry.”
With today’s sophisticated biomedical research, the ambition to be able to go to bed, close your eyes, and assume morning will come is almost ludicrous. “That seems so basic,” Meri said. “You want to take a nap on the couch, you fall asleep, and you don’t need to set an alarm. But you can’t miss a feed!”
After a lifetime organized around the next dose of cornstarch, gene therapy may finally give some patients permission to miss one—and get a good night’s sleep.
For 14 years, Meredith “Meri” Gussin has never really slept. At night in their Miami home, her husband stays awake long enough to give their son Jamie his midnight dose of cornstarch. Meri takes the next shift, waking at 4 a.m. to deliver another dose through his feeding tube, followed by another in the morning. The cornstarch isn’t simply nutrition (Box 1). For Jamie, who has a metabolic disorder known as glycogen storage disease type Ia (GSD1a), it keeps his blood sugar from crashing while he sleeps—a potentially fatal situation.
Hypothetical mishaps pop into Meri’s mind in an endless game of whack-a-mole for worries: What if her phone doesn’t charge? What if she accidentally mutes it? What if, after years of interrupted sleep, she simply doesn’t wake up? To ensure she never misses a feed, Meri has several fail safes: one alarm beside the bed and another across the room. The alarms are staggered a few minutes apart in case she silences one and drifts back to sleep.
The consequence has been a never-ending spell of anxiety and exhaustion. “We’ve never slept through the night for 14 years,” Meri told Inside Precision Medicine. “There’s this constant fear that some minor human errors can occur, and it could have consequences that could be fatal. That’s no way to live.”
But Meri’s nerves don’t get to sleep during Jamie’s waking life. Even with a continuous glucose monitor (CGM), Jamie’s blood sugar can behave unpredictably. Meri checks his Dexcom CGM while he’s at school, worries about whether he ate enough lunch to make it to his next cornstarch dose, and makes sure he leaves home carrying his pouch of “uncooked” cornstarch.
That fear reflects the peculiar cruelty of GSD1a: only with management that’s meticulous to a fault can people with this rare inherited metabolic disease appear perfectly healthy. But their bodies lack the normal ability to maintain blood glucose during fasting, making going without eating for hours—something that doesn’t constantly nag the consciousness of most—life-threatening. As Meri put it, “The issue is that there is no margin for error.”
For decades, treatment has therefore revolved around an unforgiving schedule of meals and raw, uncooked cornstarch. Now, for the first time, there is an approved therapy designed to change the underlying biology.
The first GSD1a gene therapy
On August 19, the FDA granted accelerated approval to Ultragenyx’s Genglycos (pariglasgene brecaparvovec-opnr, formerly DTX401 prior to being acquired from Dimension Therapeutics in 2017) for adults and children ages eight and older with GSD1a. It is the first approved treatment designed to address the underlying cause of the disease.
GSD1a is caused by pathogenic variants in G6PC, which encodes glucose-6-phosphatase (G6Pase), an enzyme critical to the final step that allows the liver to release glucose into the bloodstream. Patients with insufficient G6Pase activity cannot mobilize glucose during fasting, causing severe hypoglycemia, liver glycogen accumulation, and other metabolic abnormalities.
Genglycos uses an adeno-associated virus serotype 8 (AAV8) vector to deliver a functional copy of G6PC to liver cells with a single infusion. Eric Crombez, MD, chief medical officer of Ultragenyx, who began working on the program when it belonged to Dimension Therapeutics, explained that AAV8 was selected in part for its ability to traffic to the liver. (The program, which launched in 2015, predated the FDA approval of a drug using lipid nanoparticles to deliver genetic medicines—the first being Alnylam’s patisiran (Onpartto) in 2018—which are now known to have formulations that preferentially target the liver).
The G6PC gene also happens to fit comfortably within the limited cargo capacity of AAV, according to David Weinstein, MD, who has worked on GSD1a gene therapy since 1998 and served as global lead for the Phase I/II study. It seems simple to provide liver cells the genetic instructions they need to perform a missing metabolic function, but it raises a more unusual question: How do you measure success when the existing treatment comes from a packet of cornstarch?
In the Phase III GlucoGene study, patients treated with Genglycos reduced their daily cornstarch intake by an average of 41% at Week 48, compared with a 10% reduction in the placebo group, while maintaining glycemic control. By Week 96, treated patients had reduced their daily cornstarch intake by an average of 61% from baseline.
The nighttime results were particularly striking. By Week 96, nighttime cornstarch use had fallen 70% among participants originally assigned to the therapy and 75% among those who crossed over from placebo. Two-thirds eliminated at least one overnight cornstarch dose while maintaining low levels of hypoglycemia and improving fasting tolerance. Three eight- to 17-year-old Japanese patients discontinued daily cornstarch while maintaining or improving glycemic control in a small open-label study.
BOX 1. How cornstarch became a lifesaving treatment for GSD1a
For a disease caused by a missing liver enzyme, one of the most important therapeutic advances came not from a pharmaceutical laboratory, but from the kitchen. Before modern dietary management, glycogen storage disease type Ia (GSD1a) was often fatal in childhood. Because patients cannot adequately release glucose from stored glycogen, fasting can rapidly trigger severe hypoglycemia.
By the 1970s, managing GSD1a required continuous overnight nasogastric glucose infusions or highly disruptive, frequent round-the-clock feedings to prevent severe, life-threatening hypoglycemia. Researchers then began searching for a carbohydrate that could provide glucose gradually without continuous feeding. Uncooked cornstarch proved remarkably effective. Its complex starch molecules are digested slowly, providing a prolonged supply of glucose rather than the rapid spike produced by simple sugars.
In 1984, Y.T. Chen, Martin Cornblath, and John Sidbury reported uncooked cornstarch therapy for GSD1a in The New England Journal of Medicine, helping establish an approach that would become the backbone of treatment for the next four decades. The “uncooked” aspect is critical. Cooking gelatinizes starch, making it easier for digestive enzymes to break down and shortening its glucose-releasing effect. Raw cornstarch is absorbed more slowly, allowing appropriately dosed patients to maintain blood glucose for several hours.
Cornstarch dramatically changed the natural history of GSD1a, helping children who once faced life-threatening fasting intolerance survive into adulthood. But the breakthrough came with an important limitation: cornstarch does not repair the defective metabolic pathway. It substitutes for it. Patients may therefore require scrupulously timed doses around the clock, even throughout the night.
Cornstarch as an endpoint
Both Crombez and Weinstein stress that focusing only on grams of cornstarch misses what those numbers actually represent. Before cornstarch became standard management (Box 1), Crombez said, GSD1a was considered universally fatal. Depleted glucose levels prevent patients from accessing liver glycogen, so they must eat cornstarch every few hours.
When a gene-therapy recipient reduces that external glucose source yet continues maintaining blood glucose, something much more biologically significant is happening. “It’s important to talk in full sentences,” Crombez told Inside Precision Medicine. “It’s the reduction of cornstarch and the ability to maintain normal glucose levels.” If patients can fast longer without cornstarch and maintain glucose, their livers are performing a metabolic function that they previously could not. “It’s really about being able to maintain normal glucose levels by yourself for the first time in your life,” Crombez said.
Weinstein goes further. “Cornstarch reduction is not, to me, the most clinically meaningful endpoint,” Weinstein told Inside Precision Medicine. “The most important part of this is avoidance of hypoglycemia and avoidance of severe hypoglycemia.” Among patients he has followed, Weinstein said even those with severe mutations avoided severe hypoglycemia during study testing, with some fasting for as long as 15 hours—something he described as “unheard of in GSD.” That gets much closer to what families actually fear.
Meri knows what is at stake. At a patient-focused meeting hosted by the FDA that Meri helped to lead, two mothers described losing their children after missing nighttime alarms. One couple later divorced amid mutual blame over the death, Meri said.
Weinstein has seen the same tragedy clinically. “People with GSD1a, especially the people with the severe mutations, go to bed at night and worry about whether they’re going to be alive or whether their child is going to be alive in the morning,” Weinstein said. “There is a fear of going to bed because I have had patients, unfortunately, who died because they missed the overnight cornstarch.”
That, he argues, is the real therapeutic target. “With the gene therapy, I think we will prevent that fear,” Weinstein said. “To me, that is the biggest benefit of this gene therapy. It’s not the cornstarch reduction.” Crombez makes a similar distinction. “This isn’t about cornstarch,” Crombez said. “This is about these patients being able to sleep through the night and live their lives.”
Durability unknown
For all the early enthusiasm, Genglycos does not completely correct GSD1a. “I think it’s not perfect. It’s not a cure, but it should have the potential to be a life-changing treatment for many of the patients,” Weinstein said.
One important variable may be genotype. Weinstein said patients entering treatment with some residual enzyme activity appear to respond particularly well, while those with mutations resulting in no enzyme activity can still improve substantially but may not achieve the same results.
Long-term durability also remains an open question. Crombez said Phase I/II participants have now been followed beyond five years, and the benefit has so far held up. But exactly how long a single treatment can remain effective will require continued observation. “We’ve always wanted at least five years of durable treatment,” Crombez said. “I think if we can get to 10 or 15, that’s fantastic. Anything beyond that, great.”
The issue becomes particularly important in young children. AAV generally does not integrate its therapeutic payload into the genome. As a child’s liver grows and hepatocytes divide, the proportion of cells carrying the therapeutic DNA could decline. That helps explain why the therapy is currently approved starting at age eight—even though the risk from hypoglycemia can be particularly intense during early childhood.
“If we dose really young patients, we do need to be mindful that they are going to need a dose two based on liver growth alone,” Crombez said, adding that even several years of protection could ultimately prove worthwhile in particularly vulnerable children. That possibility, however, still needs to be tested.
Nor is it clear whether restoring some glucose regulation will prevent the long-term complications of GSD1a, including hepatic adenomas, kidney disease, and neurological problems. “We don’t have enough experience yet to know if gene therapy is going to increase or decrease the risk of complications,” Weinstein said.
Receiving the therapy does not mean walking out of an infusion center and forgetting about GSD1a. Weinstein believes post-treatment management—including how clinicians reduce cornstarch and adjust patients’ diets—can substantially influence outcomes. According to Weinstein, as investigators accumulated experience, results improved. “It’s not going to be just give the gene therapy and walk away, which I think for some reason people think that’s how gene therapy works,” Weinstein said.
An advance, but no cure
Genglycos likely represents the beginning, rather than the endpoint, of genetic treatment for GSD1a. Beam Therapeutics is pursuing a different strategy: gene editing designed to correct the R83C mutation, which is the genotype of Jamie Gussin. Unlike AAV gene addition, a successful edit could theoretically create a permanent genetic correction that persists as liver cells divide. “Gene editing is exciting because it offers the chance of a cure,” Weinstein said.
But its precision is also its limitation. The approach targets one particular mutation, meaning it cannot address the broad spectrum of G6PC variants responsible for GSD1a. Even if gene editing succeeds, Weinstein argues, mutation-agnostic gene addition could therefore continue serving a much broader patient population.
For now, even Ultragenyx is careful about describing what its first-generation approach has accomplished. “We understand that for all patients we are not completely, fully treating this disease,” Crombez said. “I’m a firm believer that if you start with perfect as a requirement, you’re going to get nowhere. This is a really good place to start.”
Jamie, however, didn’t qualify for the Ultragenyx or Beam Therapeutics trials. Fourteen-year-old Jamie has hardly experienced the independence many teenagers take for granted. He rarely spends nights away from his parents. He’s never attended a sleepaway camp, and only recently did he recently have his first experience with the childhood staple of sleepovers.
For families like the Gussins, success does not necessarily require perfection. Meri can comfortably send her two daughters off to college without worrying about their safety. With Jamie, she has never been able to take that basic assumption for granted. “I hope that he gets to go to college and live independently and enjoy life without fear,” she said. “For all people with GSD, the biggest gift would be able to have a full night’s sleep without that worry.”
With today’s sophisticated biomedical research, the ambition to be able to go to bed, close your eyes, and assume morning will come is almost ludicrous. “That seems so basic,” Meri said. “You want to take a nap on the couch, you fall asleep, and you don’t need to set an alarm. But you can’t miss a feed!”
After a lifetime organized around the next dose of cornstarch, gene therapy may finally give some patients permission to miss one—and get a good night’s sleep.
Da:
https://www.insideprecisionmedicine.com/topics/precision-medicine/starch-reality-gene-therapy-gives-gsd1a-patients-a-metabolic-safety-net/
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